We recognise that there may have been a small number of instances where lions scavenged other predators kills, however, we assume this to be negligible based on our kill site classification methodology. The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. Map developed from World Wildlife Fund HydroSHEDS; Digital Chart of the World drainage; and FAO Inland Water Bodies. The uppermost sandy layer is hydraulically connected with brackish waters in the Wouri estuary, and saline waters of the coastal wetlands. 1). Most often asked questions related to bitcoin. Jacobs index finally revealed a very strong preference for kills within 2 km from a waterhole for all prey species, except small antelopes, in all seasons. 2018. In Hwange, previous findings have shown that lion home range size was influenced by buffalo density in the late dry season ([40]). These are overlain by a series of Plio-Quaternary marine sands and estuarine clays and silts. Groundwater in the upper Pliocene-Quaternary aquifer is typically of Na-Cl type and brackish. Water is artificially supplied to some waterholes during the dry season (40 in the study area). Lion prey species found at kills classified in 8 groups and their respective proportions relative to frequency of occurrence. Proportions of each age class were relatively constant with an increase in the predation on juveniles by males in the wet season (Fig. Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. Frequency of use (in both kills and faeces) and selection index of kudu in the early dry season highlight the importance of this species to lion female diet. Karoo If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. : 19 192 m3/year, Per Capita in 2005 As in data were modified to ensure consistency with water resources data. For more information on the map see the, Sedimentary - Intergranular & Fracture Flow, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, https://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Hydrogeology_of_Cameroon, irrigation water use and requirement statistics, Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon, Download a GIS shapefile of the Cameroon geology and hydrogeology map, Water Resources Management and Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Cameroon, Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution, Climate, Hydrology and Water Resources in Cameroon, Water supply, sanitation and health risks in Douala 5 municipality, Cameroon, Groundwater Need Assessment - Lake Chad Basin, Effect of diffuse recharge and wastewater on groundwater contamination in Douala, Cameroon, Constructing a 3D geological model from geophysical data for groundwater modelling and management in the Kribi-Campo sedimentary sub-basin, Cameroon, http://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php?title=Hydrogeology_of_Cameroon&oldid=57918. Mambele residents have been drinking from this never-drying source for as long as the local residents can remember. In African semi-arid savannas, surface-water is a heterogeneously distributed, limiting resource which becomes scarcer as the dry season progresses. Seasonal Water Sources; Seasonal Water Sources. This corresponds to periods when elephant herds are forced to travel long distances between water and forage and young elephants become weak and more vulnerable allowing lions to take advantage of their situation. Where is the Republic of Cameroon located in the world? Seasonal variation in relative contribution to lion kills by different prey species are shown in Fig. doi.org/10.1007/s11269-009-9476-4. Overall, relative seasonal contribution revealed that grazers, such as Suidae and zebra, contribute more to lion diet in the late dry season when these species are heavily dependent on frequent access to surface-water. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. The Lake Chad Basin Aquifer System. Marion Valeix, Swakopmund, Namibia Where multi-species classes were defined, biomass was calculated as the average mass of the species included. In both rural and urban areas, people suffer because of the poor water quality in Cameroon. Effect of diffuse recharge and wastewater on groundwater contamination in Douala, Cameroon. Funding: The work was supported by the Darwin Initiative for Biodiversity, Disney Wildlife Conservation Foundation, SAVE Foundation, Regina B. Frankenberg Foundation the Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation and Instalite Contracting Bulawayo. A number of agreements and cooperative activities exist between these countries (e.g Alker 2008). Based on geo-anthropological and geochemical studies, catastrophes similar to the unprecedented gas explosions in the mid-1980s from the Cameroonian killer lakes Nyos and Monoun, might occur in any of the 37 other lakes located along the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL). Working to sustain the natural world for the benefit of people and nature. The whole country suffered from droughts in 1981-87, 1991-1999, 2001-2005 . Kill sites were classified based on the forensic evidence of a kill. This allows conversations they can hear for 100km further than normal. Prey moves between the islands and lions have to cross the water to follow. Mzima springs. 2015) of groundwater. Cameroon, a country located in Central Africa, is one of those places. Marion Valeix, Affiliation: 62% of elephants were taken in 2005, which was a drought year (rainfall: 330 mm), concurring with increasing relative contribution of elephant to lion kills in the late dry season and peak contribution in the wet season (due to many kills in November before the first rains). Samples were washed, sieved and sun dried to remove organic matter, and spread in a grid sampling tray. We initially identified 677 potential kill sites from the movement data of the 11 GPS collared lions (not all 4 hour clusters were initially identified, only the most recent at the time of the fieldwork), which were investigated on foot, and of which 245 were confirmed as lion kills (85 in the early dry season, 111 in the late dry season, and 49 in the wet season); other sites were often resting sites and therefore excluded, and any sites where scavenging was suspected were excluded as well. This is due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season which is compensated by an increase in other species consumption (Table 1). Transboundary Groundwater Fact Sheet, compiled by F Bontemps. This is consistent with findings from Kruger National Park where GPS data from male and female lions suggest that males were only present with females at 10% of their kills [4]. 2). Groundwater quality is generally good. Required fields are marked *. 23 Views. Lions get their water like most other savanna mammals, relying on watering holes and temporary pools to hydrate. In terms of quantity, it is the second potential in. Schedule a phone or Zoom call with one of our safari planners, Complete our travel enquiry form to connect with a safari planner. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055182, Editor: Matt Hayward, 1). For further information about transboundary aquifers, please see the Transboundary aquifers resources page. Positional data were recorded hourly during the night and retrieved at regular intervals. Chari has a length of 590 miles, part of which forms international border between Chad and Cameroon. Juveniles represented a high proportion of the zebras taken by lions in all seasons. When more than one prey species is available, predators are able to shift prey selection depending on relative prey availability [21]. Further water and related statistics can be accessed at the Aquastat Main Database. The main water source for the Tsavo West national park is Lake Jipe, which sradles the border with Tanzania, according to Kipongoso, its level had dropped 10 meters (33 feet) in a decade. Since the 1980s, the government has followed policies of structural adjustment and privatisation lauded by international donors and development partners. Where is Cameroon in the World? Lion kills were located in a preferentially selected "zone" around artificial waterholes, suggesting that these scarce resources form passive traps for ungulate prey. The upland regions have highland forest type vegetation. We used to walk more than 1km to fetch water, climbing up and down a steep hill. Constructing a 3D geological model from geophysical data for groundwater modelling and management in the Kribi-Campo sedimentary sub-basin, Cameroon. Recent advances in GPS technology has allowed non invasive carcass observations and faecal analysis to gain increasing knowledge on large mammalian carnivores diet [3], [4], and has also permitted to study the spatial distribution of kills providing important information for predator-prey relationships [5]. They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. Groundwater from volcanic aquifers is widely used by the bottled water industry. Igiene e sanita pubblica, 71(1), 21-37. The river supports more than 700 species of fish, a number of which are endemic, within its various eco-regions. Bold dashed lines indicate means. Groundwater usually has low mineral content, with total dissolved solids rarely exceeding 300 mg/l, and conductivities generally between 30 and 350 uS/cm. Indeed, it has become apparent in Southern Africa that male lions hunt successfully and quite often in the absence of female lions [25], [26]. We're sorry. The frequency of occurrence of species in the faecal dataset was highest for kudu (24%) followed by buffalo and medium Bovidae (each representing 18%; the medium Bovidae class is dominated by sable and eland for faecal data), small antelopes (17%), and giraffe (7%) collectively contributing 84% of the species found in faecal samples (Table 2). Seasonal variation in the relative contribution by different prey species to lion kills, for males (M) and females (F), distinguishing age class proportions. doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2020.004, Return to the index pages: We use cookies to analyse how visitors use our website and to help us provide the best possible experience for users. Groundwater in the deeper Cretaceous sandstone aquifer is dominated by K/Na-HCO3 types, and typically of good quality. More information on average rainfall and temperature for each of the climate zones in Cameroon can be seen at the Cameroon climate page. What water sources do lions exploit in zimbabweabout school : Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; What water sources do lions exploit in zimbabwemaryland lacrosse camps 2021. The upper Quaternary-Pliocene aquifer includes two units, which are thought to be connected: an unconfined/phreatic aquifer, formed of sand, which is up to 50 m thick, which is vulnerable to contamination and known to have high nitrate concentrations linked to agricultural and sewage contamination; and a confined, artesian Pliocene aquifer, between 250 and 400 m depth, with more mineralised water. We assessed seasonal prey preference using Jacobs selection index [35]: Where r is the proportion of the total number of kills or faecal samples of a particular species and p is the proportional availability of the prey species killed. There is no perennial water in Hwange, and rain fed pans hold water throughout the year only in high rainfall years. Three male and eight female lions from different coalitions and prides, instrumented with GPS Simplex and TELUS radio-collars (approximate weights: female 900 g, male 950 g; Televilt Positioning AB, Lindesberg, Sweden; see [23] for details), were studied. 3A). 2009. Abstraction boreholes in the Hama Kossou, Babouri-Figuil and Mayo Oulo basins are typically between 120 and 180 m deep. Jacobs index also revealed that buffalo was the most intensively selected species throughout the year. The middle Continental Terminal, of Tertiary to Quaternary age, comprises alternating sandstone and clay layers, which are 450 to 620 m from the surface (GWP 2013). Lion prey species found in faecal samples classified in 10 groups and their respective proportions relative to frequency of occurrence. Cameroon, a country located in Central Africa, is one of those places. Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. We assessed lion diet by combining carcass observations and faeces collection from GPS clusters, a method with recognized strengths [3], [4]. Browsers, not grazers: if you see a rhino mowing grassland, it will be a southern white. Environmental Earth Sciences, 76(9), 354. Mafany GT and Fantong WY. Your use of information provided by this website is at your own risk. 2013. Felix Murindagomo, UN Human Development Index (HDI) [highest = 1] (2014)*. Miniature waterfalls sprung up overnight cascading down rocky outcrops and bursting over gullies, only to disappear again at the first sign of sunshine. Cameroon: Water source sustains community, 1986 Panda Symbol WWF World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund). With the help of hydrology experts and in support of the kenya wildlife service, we have drilled 32 boreholes, including 29 boreholes in the tsavo conservation area. The city of Harare is supplied with water from Lakes Chivero and Darwendale or Manyame river, Seke and Harava dams on the outskirts of the city. The Project was supported by the Eppley Foundation, Panthera Foundation and the kind generosity of Rivington and Joan Winant, Adrian Gardiner and the Lilian Jean Kaplan Foundation. Lake Jipe provides water for the wildlife species in the park like the lions, elephants and among others when they are thirsty. We expected lion kill locations to be influenced by the trend in prey aggregation at artificial waterholes, resulting in seasonal variation in kill distribution; closer to waterholes in dry periods and further away in wet periods. Map developed from USGS GTOPOPO30; GADM global administrative areas; and UN Revision of World Urbanization Prospects. Some years back some boreholes were rehabilitated by either the local council or the community. and common mice (Mus spp.). Vernal pools are a type of wetlands - sometimes resembling larger puddles. Water and Sanitation Program. In terms of quantity, it is the second potential in Africa after the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is located in banakata. Jacobs index ranges between 1 (highly avoided), 0 (used in proportion to availability) and 1 (highly selected). The most frequently occurring prey species were buffalo for both sexes: 56% for males and 33% for females. Composed mainly of Cretaceous marine sandstones and limestones, which are 1000 to 2000 m thick. The deeper Cretaceous sandstones also form an important aquifer, hydraulically separated from the overlying Plio-Quaternary by mudstones. Water Resources in Cameroon This is the sum of renewable groundwater and renewable surface water resources (both internal and external) Renewable Water Resources 283 billion m/year Total Renewable Water Resources (2017) Water Resources per Capita 11,769 m/person/year Renewable Water per Inhabitant (2017) Water Dependency 4 % It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally 'bounce' these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. Here, we investigate the seasonal contribution of the different herbivore species, prey preference and distribution of kills (i.e. The pools go by a variety of names: prairie potholes, whale wallows, hog wallows, sinks, and kettles. Once biomass consumption was estimated, buffalo contributed the most to lion dietary intake (33%), followed by giraffe (20%), medium Bovidae (18%), and kudu (14%) and collectively accounting for 85% of the prey biomass consumed (Table 3). In recent years, the former National Water Supply Company of Cameroon (SNEC: Socit Nationale des Eaux du Cameroun) was privatised to create the national water utility company, Cameroon Water Utilities Corporation (CAMWATER), which has responsibility for public water supplies in urban areas. Semi-arid ecosystems are characterized by seasonal variations in surface-water and vegetation resources, with several implications for herbivores, and ultimately their predators. Andrew J. Loveridge, Jane E. Hunt, Consequently, waterhole areas are attractive for all herbivores in the dry season and attractive for grazers in the wet season, which corresponds to the period when most grazers have their young. Water Resources Management 24(5), 871888. The following references provide more information on the geology and hydrogeology of Cameroon. The significant role played by bitcoin for businesses! Yevalla, G-M S, Blaise B B, Emmanuel M, Seth R E, Beka T and Tabod T C. 2020. Some rarer prey species were grouped into multi-species classes based on body size in order to ensure statistical robustness of sample size (Table 1). The river has been exploited by local communities for transport, fish, and water for irrigation. As a country in Africa, Cameroon is situated just between the Central and Western Regions of Africa. Many springs emerge from hill slopes, some of them thermal (Mafany and Fantong 2006). These maps and graphs were developed from the CRU TS 3.21 dataset produced by the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia, UK. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Tubney House, Abingdon, United Kingdom, 2). changing relative selection of prey species between seasons, is not characteristic of the Hwange lion population at least for the primary prey. Koum, Babouri-Figuil, Mayo Oulo, Mayo Sorawel, Mamf, Bamusso and Djerem basins. Cameroons national parks are vast and the dedicated wildlife authorities and staff on the ground oftentimes lack adequate financial support and resources to carry out effective management. Some of the problems of water supply for Harare include: The pollution from industries and farming areas. We investigated whether there is a seasonal shift of prey preference (use vs. availability) suggestive of different foraging strategies in different seasons. Conceived and designed the experiments: ZD AJL DWM FM. Medium Bovidae contributed least in the late dry season (Fig. Samples were collected during kill site investigations, air dried and stored in paper bags for later analysis. There are a series of parallel faults running northeast/southwest, with displacements that can reach 1000 m, and associated with large volcanic massifs of various ages and compositions. It was not until the recent century where the conditions of lions in captivity have improved. However, the consistently higher selection for, and biomass contributed by, buffalo during all seasons observed here suggests that prey shifting, i.e. The two aquifers are separated by mudstones of the Nkappa formation. For female lions, kudu and to a lesser extent the group medium Bovidae are the most important secondary prey. Our results showed that lions are opportunist hunters with prey ranging from mice to elephant. The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. Cameroon: Sahara Desert A Threat to Livelihood and Bio-Diversity. These basins generally form low to moderately productive aquifers, capable of borehole yields of up to 5 m/hour. "An average of 300 people depend on the water source," says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. feeding locations) of African lions in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes. Seasonal differences in the distribution of prey consumed were tested using chi-square tests. Values>0 indicate preference, values<0 suggest use but avoidance. The Black Umfolozi River is a good area to keep an eye out for cats, there is lots to eat around the water. Here, we used a combination of the two approaches to provide the most complete description of lion diet in Hwange National Park, an approach that has already proved very useful for large carnivore diet in other systems [3][4], [38]. The kill sites were single kill events. In neighbouring Yenga community (20 km from Mambele) where WWF also rehabilitated a stand tap, some residents cover a distance of more than 3 km to get water. United Nations. In: Groundwater quality in Africa, ed. 1988. The field assistance of Dr. Daniel Parker, B. Stapelkamp, Nicholas Elliot, Jalle Claypole, Agrippa Moyo, Lowani Mpofu and the rangers of the Hwange National Park was invaluable. Sahara Desert The least mineralised groundwater overall is in basement aquifers. _____ _____ abiotic factor environmental conditions biotic factor. Unconsolidated aquifers - including alluvium, marine and estuarine deposits - occur in many parts of the country, and are typically in hydraulic continuity with underlying bedrock aquifers. 18, ST/TCD/5. The water is usually of magnesium-carbonate type (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Water sources are also considered crucial in lion habitat selection in the Serengeti [47] and thought to act as passive traps for ungulates in the Kruger ecosystem [5], [48]. Small antelopes contributed 1% to lion diet by relative biomass consumed. The Africa Groundwater Atlas is hosted by the British Geological Survey (BGS) and includes information from third party sources. Seasonal geographic information on waterholes was available and allowed us to calculate for each kill the distance to the nearest waterhole containing water (distance-to-water) using ArcView 3.2 nearest neighbour extensions (ESRI 2004). The Ministry of Water Resources and Energy / Ministere De Leau Et De Lenergie (MINEE) has responsibility for water supply and sanitation in both rural areas and towns through the Directorate of Directorate of Water (DE: Direction de lEau). It was not possible to quantify biomass rigorously from faecal samples, as prey age and sex were not discernible from hair remains. Water Practice and Technology. Additionally, giraffe were consumed in proportion to their availability in the early and late dry seasons by female lions, and contributed 18% of biomass to female lion diet. Four different kinds of cryptocurrencies you should know. Tsavo Lion Project - Lion Conservation Fund. For medium Bovidae in the early dry season, male lions killed the three prey recorded far from a waterhole (Fig. Unique social system found in famous Tsavo lions - EurekAlert! Etosha Please cite this page as: Upton, Dochartaigh & Bellwood-Howard, 2018. During this time game sightings were spectacular. A lower series of clays and sandstones in the southeast, and an upper series of sandstones in the west of the basin. Corrections, Expressions of Concern, and Retractions. Across-ecosystems, comparisons of large mammalian carnivore diet have now provided a good understanding of the preferred prey weight range of several carnivore species [6][8], but local studies are still needed to unravel the role of environmental factors and prey availability. What are the major rivers in Cameroon? These sandstones form a productive aquifer, with permeabilities of around 8 to 80 m/day; transmissivities of 300 to 1700 m/day; and a storage coefficient of 0.025. Buffalo consistently emerged as the most frequently utilised prey in all seasons by both male (56%) and female (33%) lions, contributing the most to lion dietary biomass. Water supply, sanitation and health risks in Douala 5 municipality, Cameroon. Kill investigation to study carnivore diet is biased towards larger species that are easier to detect using GPS data since predators will stay longer at a the kill of a larger prey animal, and using carcasses alone clearly underestimates the number of feeding events on small species, sometimes up to 50% [3], [4]. Prey shift might be a response to larger variations in local prey abundance, perhaps over longer periods as shown for the Kruger National Park [21], or in ecosystems where more significant variation occurs in prey abundance over shorter time scales as shown for the Serengeti [41]. We owe thanks to Wilderness Safaris, The Hide Safaris, Touch the Wild Safaris, Zimbabwe Sun international and the Gwaai ICA for permission to work on their concessions. Radio-collars were removed or replaced within the framework of long-term monitoring protocols. The river supports more than 700 species of fish, a number of which are endemic, within its various eco-regions. Overall, juveniles represented one third of the zebra carcasses found. It is covered by 6 of the 8 main climatic units encountered in Cameroon (Kpoumi 2015) which are: (1) altitudinal tropical climate of the Adamawa; (2) mountainous tropical climate of the West;. A pint-sized antelope, often no taller than a big coffee-table book, with a squeaky cry and a zig-zagging escape tactic. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). Below this there can be a deeper fractured aquifer, which usually has low permeability. WWF worked together with the communities to rehabilitate six stand taps in six communities, explains Njounan. Contrastingly during wet seasons, pools of water are more available throughout the landscape and herbivore distributions more homogeneous and dispersed. This is reflected by the declines in certain rare herbivores when artificial water points allowed more common herbivores and resident predators access to areas previously too dry to support them [48], [50]. For more information on the datasets used to develop the map see the, Major surface water features of Cameroon. What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. Approximately 98% of the annual rainfall occurs from October to April and the long-term annual average (calculated for the period 19182007) is 632 mm (range: 3241160 mm). It is located in banakata. Occasionally, falling water tables in the dry season cause a reversal of the hydraulic gradient and seawater intrusion. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. The main rivers in the south of the country are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri, which flow southwestward or westward into the Gulf of Guinea. In our study, lions preyed mainly on elephant juveniles at the end of the dry season of a very dry year (October-November 2005), supporting previous findings that young elephants make up an unusually large proportion of lion prey in Hwange in the dry season during years of low rainfall [19]. 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